Hinduism - Basics & FAQ - Part 10

Hinduism - Basics & FAQ

Preface:
Collection of FAQs to understand basics of Hinduism - a collection of facts as shared by my friend, Shri Sai, a vivid forum contributor in Tamil 'Thuglak' magazine. Entire collection here and the following pages in several parts, due to volume of information, are fully attributed to Shri Sai. His various sources are attributed 'then and there' where relevant. Have a pleasant reading-cum-learning, readers!!
- Singai Sivas
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79. How does Vedanta help a person achieve happiness ?

An individual's life is a continuity of experiences, driven by a constant yearning to achieve complete and lasting happiness, a fuller and deeper peace. To live harmoniously, one must have right understanding of oneself and the world.

Vedanta does not teach indifference to sorrow, poverty, injustice, etc., but does teach how wrong estimation of the world and superimposition of false values on things, being, and situations can result in unhappy and painful experiences. Vedanta teaches one how to readjust one's view of, and relationship with, the world, in order to ultimately realize the Self.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Why Religion ?), Chinmaya Mission

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80. Is the influence of religion on the masses declining ? If not, how can we account for corruption and other such pointers that indicate widespread deterioration in ethical and moral values ? 

All those who have eyes can vividly see that religion in India is today more popular than ever before. Famous temples are overflowing with pilgrims; new temples are mushrooming all over; temple construction committteees are spontaneously rising up even in the most distant corners of shy villages, and they are sincerely struggling to find funds and materials for rebuilding and renovating the neglected and dilapitated old shrines.

Daily newspapers all over the country are announcing in their columns dozens of spiritual talks and religious functions. Religion is rampant as never before. This is, to an extent, true all over the world. The widespread sense of insecurity, political and economic, compels the human being to run to religion, to use it perhaps as a crutch.

Honestly, I do not believe that most of the immorality and corruption found in the world is caused by any lack of religion. Immorality and corruption are, at best, the by-products of intelligent laws, general scarcity, rise in population, and the consequent unnatural, crowded living conditions in impossibly large metropolitan centers. And certainly in India, the sudden change in our values, brought about by the spirit of secularism, is also nibbling away at the confused hearts of the illiterate and uneducated. If we can lace this freshly steaming spirit of religion in our country with atleast of a deeper philosophical and cultural depth, a bigger change in the moral flavor of our social life will surely follow.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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81. The traditional charge against Hinduism is that it is fatalistic and that it inhibits progress by making people slaves to the belief of the inevitability of whatever is to happen. How far is this true ? What is the basis of such accusation, which is being advanced even today by well-meaning and highly educated people ?

The idea of destiny is very much a part of Hinduism, and as a truth, it cannot be denied. The subtle thinkers, our 'rishis', while analyzing and studying life in the raw, in the light of their own subjective experiences of the spiritual Essence, came to the honest conclusion that there is an inevitable continuity in all happenings. The present is naturally a product of the entire past. Therefore, the past orders, controls, and governs the present. "This is destiny!" cry all hasty students.

This hasty conclusion is what the Western missionaries have gathered from their hurry-burry studies of our deep and profound thought. They translated and criticized.  All these criticisms are available in well-bound, attractive volumes at many universities and public libraries. The modern, educated Indian reads these books. The thoughtful reads gets shocked by the conflicts therein, but the thoughtless reader comes to blindly believe all that he gathers from these incompetent, second-hand, smothered ideas. The hasty Western student understands only one-half of our law of karma, and those misunderstand it preach the hopeless philosophy of "destiny" as being the essence of Hindu thought.

"The present is the product of the past" is not all that the law of karma declares. Half a thought in any philosophy can become a dangerous, false statement. The law of karma, when completely declared, insists upon a scientifically unassailable truth: "The present is the product of the past, and the future is the past modified in the present." The present with reference to the past is already "destiny," but by the very texture of our present thoughts and by the quality of our present actions-self-effort-we are ordering and building our future. This larger implication is the organic part of the law of karma and cannot ever be separated without destroying the truth of the entire concept. In short, what we meet in life is "destiny" ('prarabdha') and how we meet what we meet in life is self-effort ('purushartha').

The present criticism that "it [destiny] inhibits progress by making slaves to the belief in the inevitability of whatever is to happen" cannot stand in the light of any deep inquiry. The present is ordered by the past; therefore, the present is inevitable. In the forenoon, I consume a lot of salt; in the afternoon, it is inevitable that I will feel thirsty. It is sheer wisdom to recognize the present as the effect of some cause or causes initiated in the past. Wisdom is the antidote for all confusion and the solace for all fear.

Historically the Hindus would not have survived as a cultural unit after all these centuries of persecution and political slavery but for this deep understanding and their consequent unshakeable heroism and inner composure in the face of all their trials. Maybe we must now re-educate the public in the positive aspect of the law of karma: that thought by thought and action by action, we are sculpting our future.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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82. It is said that the greatest strength of Hinduism is its breadth of outlook and that this is also its greatest weakness, in that there are very few common prescribed religious observances obligatory for all, as in other religions. Is it necessary and possible to outline certain basic, minimum observances for all Hindus ?

This is a very delicate and sensitive area, and no one should dash into it with hasty remedy. Hinduism is geared toward producing saints, evolving sages, and raising masters. Spiritual perfection in the individual is the goal. Beautifying the mind, uplifting the vision to the highest, and thereby coming to manifest the glory of the flame of Existence, so as to enrich and enthrall the world around him - this is an art. And indeed, art can grow only in freedom.

Religions, at their lower levels, aim at organizing society and harnessing the emotional fervor of the population, thus generating a kind of social militancy, which is, no doubt, good for the political and economic well-being of a community. However, the sorrows that such a society can spawn are indeed calamitous. The pages of human history may have been cleaner if not for such religions and their deadly bloody battles waged, or the Islamic 'jihads', or the Shaivite and Vaishnavite conflicts in the South, or the feuds between the 'Arya Samajis' and the 'Sanatanis' in the North - every one of them is an example of the confrontations that inevitably arise when religions are organized and religious thought is walled in by dogma and rituals.

I am not against organization. I am very much conscious that I myself and the head of an organization with a vision, [and this organization] is growing everyday as a result of my personal, tireless endeavors. Organization is unavoidably needed. We need churches, mosques, temples, and other such institutions. Large masses of people congregating therein can thereby develop in their actions and thoughts a rhythm at once loving and divine. But in prescribing these strict religious schemes of service, we must grow truly senstive to feel how far we should go and not become insistent. Otherwise, we will destroy the spontaneity in the seeker, which many other religions do. Those who no longer need the warm protection of a religious institution must be able to walk out of its motherly embrace and seek their own independent and fuller expressions in the quest for divine.

I believe the present system is more than sufficient for this purpose. All that we need is a team of intelligent, educated interpreters who can update the truth of our philosophy and religious texts to fit the thought patterns of our own times. If the long-term plan is to train such a cadre of priests, then, as a short-term policy, I would strongly recommend that such literature, in the form of pamphlets, be distributed to the masses through the temples, as a part of the usual 'prasada', especially on sacred days and festive occasions.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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83. Will the fundamental values of Hinduism be in any way affected by the eradication of casteism, toward which a concerted effort is being made now, on all levels ? If Harijans, who constitute a sizable population among Hindus, are made to feel that their religion exposes them to ridicule, how are they to love that religion ? In other words, how can all sections of Hindus can be made to take equal interest in, and have the same sense of belonging to, their religion ? 

"Caste-ism" has no place in Hinduism. The word "caste" indicates a scientific classification of man's inner personality, which is universal and true for all times. Every one of us expresses in one of three distinct moods ('sattva', 'raja', 'tamas') due to the preponderance of one over the other two. Based on these moods, the human mind functions in four different grades ('varnas'). These physchological classifications are called castes. In fact, caste only shows how you are cast.

When a thought, however good it may be, is with an individual for a long period of time, his vested intersts come to abuse it, and the distorted thought, in time, often grows to become an ugly veil in society. Casteism is not permitted, while castes are inevitable. There are 'brahmanas' (Brahmins) in America as much as 'shurdras' in Rome. Where in the world you not find honest, ethical, clean thinkers ('brahmanas'); enthusiastic and tireless leaders of men in the political field ( 

'kshatriyas'); commercial men ('vaishyas'); and labor-oriented persons ('shudras') ? But not to recognize that they are all different aspects of the one infinite Lord is a pernicious conspiracy bought into society by covetous. Such things happen around the world when leaders try to guard their own selfish interests. The sad and unjust condition of the African-Americans in America is a case in point. Theirs is but a history of 200 years. The evil that we [in India] are faced with has a history of about 3,000 years.

Yet, in our [India's] 30 years of independence, we have, in our Constituion, updated the rights and privileges of the Harijans to be at par with the Brahmins. True, the emotional integration is not yet complete, especially in the interior conservative villages. But the progress that we have already made is phenomenal. We shall continue the same policy, and perhaps we must intelligently modulate it to bring about some more self-respect and self-sufficieny in the younger generation, which has already been redeemed. They [the younger generation] should not lean too much on the government or play an endless tune of complaints. It is time that they show their political responsibility and social maturity. Now they are flooding into schools and colleges. If we can end, through our education system, our political attitude of strict untouchability and unapporachability toward our cultural traditions and religious literature, we could perhaps re-educate our brothers much quicker. They have suffered in neglect not because there was any scriptural sanction for it, but because of an error in reading and interpreting the pregnant [scriptural] statements, or perhaps even because of a deliberate act of maneuvering by those who were then in power, wanting to protect and prepetuate their vested interests.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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84. Hinduism has always renewed or revitalized itself according to the needs of the times. In today's context, are any corrective measures called for ? If so, who will bring them about, and how can they be brought about and made acceptable to the masses ? 

When a culture is alive, it will create its own answers to all the insistent demands of the historical period and the evils of that period. Our culture has done it many a time in the past. Vyasa, Buddha, Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhvacharya, Vivekananda, Narayana Guru, are a few examples. In the same way, the new age will create its own masters.

When we look around, we see that this rejuvenation is being accomplished all over again. The stupendous activities of pioneers like Swami Sivananda, Aurobindo, Ramana Maharishi, Swami Ram Das of Kanjangad, Neem Karoli Baba, and others; the gigantic efforts of Shri Satya Sai Baba; the benign services of institutions like Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Gita Press of Gorakhpur, and others; [all these,] like the organized, disciplined, and intelligently maneuvered programs of Chinmaya Mission, now spread all over the country and abroad. These are answers to the throb that is now being felt within our Hindu community. To say that Hinduism has not shown any response to the needs of our times is to be utterly blind to what is happening today not only in our country, but all around the world.

The emphasis is slowly shifting from ritualism to yoga and a deeper study of philosophy, [to prepare one] to enter into and explore the secrets of inner life through contemplation and meditation. To run schools and colleges in a general atmosphere of culture and religion, to give our growing generation a fair chance to judge for itself its own traditions and culture, to provide educated preachers who can preach religious and spiritual ideas with reference to our immediate social and economic needs, to spare some time on the air and space in the newspapers and journals to discuss constructively the practical ideas of 'Bhagavad Gita', to revive through attractive programs people's enthusiasm to reach our temples for mass silent prayers - these are some of the programs I would strongly recommend, since these are the very programs I have been working on, indeed, very successfully, for many years.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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85. Are fasting and such other dietary regulations necessary for leading a spiritual life ? Is a guru essential for one to enter the spiritual path and attain the goal ? 

To withdraw the mind's wandering attention from the outer world of names and forms, and to redirect its attention steadily to the spring of all activities in one's own within, is spiritual seeking. To center our attention on this inner silence and tranquility, and to confront the world of happenings around, is spiritual life. Naturally, therfore, fasting becomes important, not necessarily as the non-eating of food, which we taken in by the mouth, but as a strict discipline maintained in all our intakes - seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, even feeling and thinking.

The very fact that you are asking these questions clealy shows that we need teachers to teach us. Think for a moment: Is there anything that we do well today, with confidence or any amount of mastery, which has not been taught to us ? If, for every perfect act in the world, in any department of activity, by anyone, we need the guidance of an instructor, then you can very well understand the need for a guru on the spiritual path, where we have to deal with the subtlest forces and the enormous confusions of the vehicle called the mind, and its mood called delusions.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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86. Will mantras lose their sanctity if they are not chanted in Sanskrit ? There are various 'samskaras' prescribed in Hinduism prescribed from birth to death. Many of these 'samskaras' are not being observed today. Should they not be revived ?

Mantras are not mere words. That which uplifts us when we reflect on it is a mantra. So the sound symbol, or mantra, serves as the rails for the train of thought to smoke through and reach its destination of vivid and direct experience. Whatever be the language in which mantras are chanted, each individual will reflect upon them in his own native language. Thus, when an American chats 'Shivoham', he cannot reflect upon the significance of this mantra except in his own native tongue: "I am auspiciousness; I am Shiva." Therefore, what harm can there be in his mantra being in any language ? 

No doubt, Sanskrit is such a perfect language that the very vibrations of the words in the mantra have a soothing effect on the mind. Yet, this is but a very superficial gain as compared to the deep significance, divine glory, endless richness, fabulous beauty - the holiness and preciousness - of the meaning arrived at through reflection. Will anyone ever purchase a costly pearl necklace in order to have only its velvet container ? 

For the masses, celebrations and demonstrations have an impressive impact. Even a peace-loving country like ours must have military parades on Republic Day in order to reinforce the confidence of the masses in the might of the country. These 'samskaras' (rituals) have an effect, just as convocation assemblies, marriage ceremonies, the laying of foundation stones, the unveiling of statues, and the inaugurations of dams, etc. do. 'Samskaras', if conducted by all, should bring about a  sense of discipline and a pride of belonging, providing a healthy reminder of the significant cultural meanings of these rituals to all those who attend such functions.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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87. What is the role of rituals in religion ? Are they to be discouraged ? 

Rituals are objective dramatizations of the subjective art of self-perfection; such ceremonies and attractive displays of rhythm and beauty cannot be eliminated from human life. Historically, it is true that whenever ritualism is removed, churches, mosques, and temples are closed down and replaced by military parades, nightclubs and their excesses, race course crowds, boxing galleries, etc. Let the public decide what they want. I would prefer that my countrymen have religious rituals entertaining them rather than the more dangerous and immoral activities.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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88. What is your view regarding proselytization ? If you were convinced that Hinduism has a great role to play in the world , would you consider proselytization ?

Proselytize is the cheap commericialism of religion. It is not sanctioned in Hinduism. We are enjoined only to propagate the spiritual science that is our inheritance. By gathering an understanding of the Hindu Upanishads and gaining a glimpse of the universal thoughts expounded by the 'rishis' therein, a Christian can perhaps become a better Christian, a Hindu surely a better Hindu. Such training gives the human mind a subtler version to see clearly the eternal thoughts expounded by the spiritual masters and the silent content in their pregnant words.

Any individual must be welcomed into the fold of any faith to participate in its spiritual practices. But to convert people as though they are manufactured goods to be stamped with trademarks and packed and stored away in churches, temples, or mosques is a repugnant idea, choking the very spirit of Hindu scientific thought. However, we have every right to receive our brothers back - Hindus who had, because of their own confusions or due to some cruel political and/or economic pressures, left us to embrace other faiths. This is not conversion. This is a return into the fold of those who lost their way and strayed for a time.

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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89. Are changes visible in Hinduism's doctrines and in the modes of individual and collective worship as a result of contact with the West ? 

Visible changes are recognizable in other faiths due to their contacts with Hinduism. Evidently, today Hinduism is shedding her light on imparting her fragrance to Western thought. And I must say that the reverse is not at all visible or true. The scientific thoughts of the West have recently confirmed our 'japa' technique and the powers inherent in 'bija-aksharas' (sacred syllables, mantras). This is the contribution of the transcendental meditation of Mahesh Yogi; this elimentary technique of 'japa' in Hinduism has become the great transcendental meditation so popular in the West today.

The Christian authorities have started emphasizing more than ever the need for meditation. They are re-reading their Bible and discovering a sanction for yoga in the words of Jesus. It is not too infrequent nowadays to see church programs that include yoga practices. I am indicating these only to demonstrate the spectacular signs of Hindu influence now glaringly evident in the West. In short, Hinduism gave more in her casual trip to the West than what she herself accepted when she suffered the embrace of the West all these centuries.

And is it not true that Christianity in India has become more Hindu-ized ? Is not Mother Mary now wearing a 'sari' ? Don't we hear the sounds of cymbals from churches ? Don't churches now smell more of incense ? Don't we see oil lamps replacing candles ? Are processions with Indian drums of Jesus on elephants not a common sight in India ? Are not Christian priests now calling themselves swamis ? Are not their monasteries now becoming ashrams ? Have not even churches started calling temples ? Is it not becoming fashionable now to have Hindu name for every Thomas, John, Mary, and Anna ?

I do not think Hinduism has anything to gain from the West....We have much to give them....They are taking....And they must take more.

Hari Om

Source - Hindu Culture Series - Hinduism (FAQ - Q&A with Swami Chinmayanada, Excerpts from a questionnaire by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (circa 1975) ), Chinmaya Mission

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Appendix

Hindu scriptural literature is so vast and comprehensive that there is no branch of knowledge left uninvestigated by the great seers of India. The Hindu was never satisfied unless every question that he faced, be it material, scientific, religious, philosophical, or spiritual, was thoroughly discussed in all aspects to its irrefutable conclusion.

The lists and tables that follow will give insight into the progress of Indian thought through the ages, and will show how our forefathers relentlessly investigated the various fields of knowledge; discovered scientific, philisophic, and spiritual truths; enunciated and codified them in systematic treatises on various subjects; and bequeathed them to posterity. To them, Sanatana Dharma meant the eternal values of life and they adhered to it in all circumstances. For them, Hinduism was not a closed book, because in their profound wisdom, they recognized the fact that there is no limit to knowledge. Search. You will find. The more you search, the more you will find.

Swami Chinmayananda

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Vedas

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1. Rig (Rk) Veda: 432,000 Samhitas; 28 Brahmanas; 42 Upanishads; total of 707,000 stanzas

2. Yagur Veda: 250,000 Samhitas; 32 Brahmanas; 60 Upanishads; total of 455,000 stanzas

3. Sama Veda: 600,000 Samhitas; 21 Brahmanas; 90 Upanishads; total of 950,000 stanzas

4. Atharva Veda: 300,000 Samhitas; 11 Brahmanas; 52 Upanishads; total of 480,000 stanzas

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Upa - Vedas

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1. Ayurveda: 'Chakranuvesha' by Sanaka; original works attributed to Dhanvantari, extant works by Charaka, Sushruta, and Vegabhatta (also a bacteriologist); the science of longevity

2. Dhanurveda: 'Praveshashta-prakasham' by Prachetas; original works attributed to Bhirgu and Vishvamitra; the science of warfare

3. Gandharva Veda: 'Svaranuvada' by Narada; the science of music

4. Sthapatya Veda: 'Siddhantopanyastha' by Ashvini Kumaras; the science of architecture

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Darshanas : Schools of Philosophy

1. Nyaya: Svayambhu's 'Prabhantariksha',  Sage Gautama's 'Nyaya Sutras', 'Tarka-sangraha', 'Bhasha-parichheda', 'Siddhanta-muktavali', 'Kusumanjali' by Udayanacharya is an important work on this subject

2. Vaisheshika: Kratu's 'Darshanabubhava'; subsequent work by Kannada Rishi

3. Sankhya: Original work is Maricha's 'Anubhava'; subsequent authoritative work by Sage Kapila

4. Yoga: Original treatise by Chyamana called 'Vrithyajitharnava'; subsequent works by Sage Patangali, with elaborate commentaries by Bhoja Deva, Vachaspati Mishra, Vijnana Bhikshu, and Nagoji Bhatta

5. Mimamsa: Original work Arthaprakasha of Rishi Angiras; subsequent work by Sage Jamini; also called 'Purva Mimamsa' or 'Karma Mimamsa'

6. Vedanta: Also called 'Uttara Mimamsa'; original work is said to be Lord Brahma's 'Prahiksha-pradipa'; subsequent work is 'Brahma Sutras' by Veda Vyasa

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Shabda Shastras

1. Shiksha: Phonetics

Maheshavra's 'Shisksha' and 'Narada Bhashya' are also called 'pratisakhyas' and total 172,000 stanzas. This subject is also dealt with in a chapter in 'Taittiriya Aranyaka' and a book called 'Manduki Shiksha'.

2. Kalpa: Design and Construction of Religious Sites

Devi's 'Vyavasthanubhava' is the original treatise of 248,000 stanzas. Subsequently, several works on this subject came out of each of the four vedas. Examples include:

a. From 'Rig Veda': Ashvalayana, Shankhayana, Shaunaka

b. From 'Sama Veda': Masaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana

c. From 'Yajur Veda': Apastamba, Satyashadha, Hirenyakeshi, Manava, Bharadvaja, Vathula, Vyakhanasha, Maitra, Katha,

  Varaha, etc. (from Krishna Yajur Veda), Katyayana (from Shukla Yajur Veda)

d. From 'Atharva Veda': Kaushitaka

3. Vyakarana: Grammar

First came the 'Maheshvara Sutras' and 'Narada Bhashya', totaling 100,000 stanzas. Thereafter came the 'Panini Sutras' ('Ashtadhyayi', the world-renowned grammatical work that remains unparalled to date and is accepted as such by 

Western scholars also) and Patanjali's 'Mahabhashya', both of which are important and authoritative treatises.

There are other notable grammarians before Panini, namely, Apishali, Kashyapa, Gargya, Galava, Chakravarman, Bharadvaja, Shakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka, abd Sphotayama. Katyayana was an outstanding grammarian from Panini.

4. Nirukta: Vedic Etymology

Ganesha's 'Nirukta' and Shesha's 'Bhashya' comprise 55,000 stanzas. Subsequent work was done by Yaskacharya. A well-known work is 'Amara Kosha' also known as 'Nama-linga-anushasanam', written by the world's first lexicographer, Amarasimha, a great scholar who flourished in the court of King Vikramatidya and who was contemporary of the great poet Kalidasa.

5. Chhandas: Prosody (Meter)

Vishnu's 'Chhandornava' is comprised of 172,000 stanzas. The subsequent work of 'Chhanda Shastra' came from Pingala. Many other works came later, including 'Nidana Sutra', 'Shruta-bodha', 'Vanibhushana', 'Vritta-darpana', 'Vritta-ratnakara', 'Vritta-kaumudi', 'Chhandomanjari', and 'Savritha-tilaka'. 'Chhandomanjari' by Gangadasa is an important work on this subject.

The number of meters possible in Sanskrit poetry is an astronomical figure. The word for meter in Sanskrit is 'vritta'. There are three types of 'vrittas': 'Sama Vritta', 'Vishama Vritta', and 'Ardha-sama Vritta'. The categorization depends on whether the  composition of each line in a four-line stanza is the same or different. For example, in 'Sama Vrittas', the maximum number of letters in a line is 26. With 1-26 hard-sound (guru) and soft-sound (laghu) letters in each line, the maximum number of metric-permutations under 'Sama Vritta' is 87,108,864.

6. Jyotisha: Astronomy and Astrology

Surya's 'Brihandanka-pradipa' has 100,000 stanzas. The subsequent important works are 'Aryabhattiya' by Aryabhatta, and 'Surya Siddhanta' by Bhaskaracharya. There are also treatises on the subject by Varaha Mihira, Garga, and Brahmagupta.

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Arts and Sciences

1. Akshara Laksha: Attribued to Sage Valmiki; deals with the branches of mathematics: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trignometry, physics, and applied mathematics; consists of 50 chapters; acknowledges the earlier discoveries of Hanuman, Jaimini, Brihaspati, Kashyapa; also deals with geography, air/wind, electricity, mineralogy, and more.

2. Artha Shastra: Short treatise attibuted to Sage Vyasa, wherin he deals with more than 80 ways of earning wealth through 'dharmik' means; extant work attributed to Kautilya

3. Chitra Karma: Believed to have authored by Bhima; deals with the science of fine arts; 12 chapters with more than 200 sketches; explains a novel method by which an artist can create the complete figure of a person after having seen only a portion of his body.

4. Dhattu Vada: Believed to have written by Ashvini Kumaras; deals with the science of alchemy and the conversion of baser metals into gold; a treatise on 'dhatus', or primary substances, and their reactions and combinations.

5. Gaja Shastra: Attributed to Kumarasvami; deals with the behaviour and characteritics of elephants; gives methodology to categorize elephants on the basis of certain body marks

6. Kala Nirnaya: Attributed to Lord Kartikeya; deals with the concept of time, auspicious and inauspicious occasions, limitations of time and its measurements, and the presiding deities of various dates, constellations, etc.

7. Lakshana Shastra: Attributed to Sage Shakatayana; deals with the determination of gender in both animate and inanimate creation; Babhru Muni's work 'Kanya Lakshana' lists characteristics of an unwed girl that can be used to reveal her future, family life, children, prosperity, chastity, etc.

8. Shakuna Shastra: Sage Garga's detailed treatise on omens or success or failure in endeavours

9. Malini Shastra: Attributed to Sage Rishyashringa; a comprehensive treatise dealing with flowers and their arrangements, including making garlands and bouquets, how women adorn themselves with flowers, conveying messages of love through flowers,etc.

10. Malla Shastra: Attributed to Malla Muni; deals with health-preservation and body building; the science of gymnastics, athletics, wrestling, etc.

11. Mahendra Jala: Attributed to Virabhu; deals with the science of magic; describes the art of creating illusions (flying, walking on water, etc.)

12. Parakaya Pravesha: Attributed to Valakhilyas; deals with the eight 'siddhis' - anima, mahima, laghima, garima, ishitva, vashistva, prapti, and prakashya; the 32 yogas leading to 'parakaya pravesha', or the transfer of one's 'jiva', at will, to another body (as was done by Adi Shankara into the body of King Amaruka)

13. Ratna Pariksha and Kanaka Pariksha: Attributed to Sage Vatsyana; deals with the science of testing precious stones and gold for genuineness, including the 24 'lakshanas' (signs) of precious stones and gems, their categorization, and the 32 tests of their quality and genuineness

14. Samudrika Shastra: Attributed to Samudra Raja, or Lord Varuna; deals with the various body marks that are said to indicate a person's character, life, and experiences; said to have started with Varuna's reading of the auspicious marks on Lord Vishnu's reclining body; further developed through the later contributions of Narada, Varaha, Mandavya, etc.; one of its branches is palmistry

15. Saudamini Shastra: Attributed to Sage Mattanga of Mount Rishyamukha; deals with 'chhaya-grahana', or the power and use of shadows; also deals with the science of photography and its derivations

16. Shabda Shastra: Attributed to Rishi Kandika; deals with sounds and echoes, their categorizations and modifications, and the mechanical reproduction of sounds (pitch, frequency, velocity, etc.)

17. Shakthi Tantra Shastra:  Attributed to Sage Agastya; consists of eight detailed chapters that deal with the various energies and powers in the universe, including the 64 kinds of energy in Nature; the sun, moon, and their 'shaktis'; the practical applications to harness such forces; the unlimited energy contained in the atom; an atom's fusion and fission; and nuclear science.

18. Shilpa Shastra: Attributed to Sage Kashyapa; deals with sculpture, construction of idols, temples, palaces, etc; 22 chapters with 307 categories of sculptures and over 100 types of images and idols, including their dimension, proportions, and other characteristics; Vishavakarma is said to have contributed much to the development of this science.

19. Supa Shastra: Attributed to Sukesha; deals with the science of cooking, which Sukesha is said to have perfected to a science; contains various preparations of condiments, pickles, sweets, puddings, cakes; different dishes to suit the tastes of people in different parts of the world; 'supa' means "broth" (thus the word 'soup')

20. Turanga Shastra: Comprehensive treatise on horses by Agnivarman; expounds on everything about horses, including breeding, upbringing, pedigree, points for selection, and various uses, including war; King Nala is also said to have written a treatise called 'Ashva Hridaya' on this subject.

21. Vatavarana Shastra: Attributed to Sage Atri; deals with clouds, their categorization, and characteristics; 12 different kinds of rain; 64 types of lightning; 33 types of thunderbolts, etc.

22. Visha Shastra: Attributed to the Ashvini Kumaras; exhaustive treatise on the science of poisons; elaborate discussions about the 32 broad categories of all poisons, including their properties, preparations, applications, and antidotes

23. Yantra Shastra: Attributed to Sage Bharadvaja; deals with the types of vehicles for movement on land, water, and air; also deals with the possibility and methodology of movement in space without any vehicle, using only mantras (mystic sound symbols) and tantras (energy forces)

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PRAMANAS: MEANS OF KNOWLEDGE

According to Hindu scriptures, the various means or sources of human knowledge are:

1. Pratyaksha: Perception

2. Anumana: Inference

3. Apta Vakya (Shabda): Testimony (verbal)

4. Upamana: Comparison

5. Arthapatti: Postulation

6. Anupalabdhi: Noncongnition

Hindu thinkers of different schools of philosophy have varying standpoints on what they accept as valid sources of knowledge.

The 'Charvakas' admit only one source of valid knowledge: perception

The 'Baudhas' and 'Vaisheshikas' admit two sources: perception and inference

The 'Sankhyas' state threee sources: perception, inference, and verbal testimony

The 'Naiyayikas' also accept a fourth way: comparison

The 'Prabhakaras' add a fifth dimension: postulate or assumption

The 'Bhattas' and 'Vedantins' add a sixth source: noncognition or nonperception. Noncongnition is the knowledge of the absence of a thing, such as when we say, "There is no jar in this room." The 'Bhattas' and 'Vedantins' thus accept all six sources of knowledge.

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108 PRINCIPAL UPANISHADS

From Rig Veda(11)

1. Aitareya

2. Aksha-malika

3. Atma-bodha

4. Bahvricha

5. Kaushitaki

6. Mudgala

7. Nada-bindu

8. Nirvana

9. Sarasvati-rahasya

10. Saubhaya-lakshmi

11. Tripura

From Yajur Veda (Krishna Yajur Veda) (28)

1. Akshi

2. Amrita-bindu (Brahma-bindu)

3. Amrita-nada

4. Avadhuta

5. Brahma

6. Brahma-vidya

7. Dakshinamurti

8. Dhyana-bindu

9. Ekakshara

10. Garbha

11. Kalagni-rudra

12. Kali-santarana

13. Katha

14. Katha-rudra

15. Narayana

16. Pancha-brahma

17. Pranagnihotra

18. Rudra-hridaya

19. Sarva-sara

20. Shariraka

21. Shuka-rahasya

22. Skanda

23. Taittiriya

24. Tejobindu

25. Varaha

26. Yoga-kundalini

27. Yoga-shikha

28. Yoga-tattva

From Yajur Veda (Shukla Yajur Veda) (21)

1. Adhyatma

2. Advaya-taraka

3. Bhikshuka

4. Brihadaranyaka

5. Hamsa

6. Ishavasya

7. Jabala

8. Kshurika

9. Mandala-brahmana

10. Mantrika

11. Muktika

12. Niralamba

13. Paingala

14. Paramahamsa

15. Shatyayana

16. Subala

17. Svetashvatara

18. Tarasara

19. Trisikha

20. Turiyatita

21. Yajnavalkya

From Sama Veda (16)

1. Aruneya

2. Avyakta

3. Chhandogya

4. Darshana

5. Jabala

6. Kena

7. Kundika

8. Maha

9. Maitrayani

10. Maitreya

11. Rudraksha

12. Sannyasa

13. Savitri

14. Vajrasuchi

15. Vasudeva

16. Yoga-chudamani

From Atharva Veda (32)

1. Annapurna

2. Atharva-shikha

3. Atharva-shira

4. Atma

5. Bhasma-jabala

6. Bhavana

7. Brihajjabala

8. Dattatreya

9. Devi

10. Ganapati

11. Garuda

12. Gopala-tapani

13. Hayagriva

14. Kaivalya *

15. Krishna

16. Mahanarayana

17. Mahavakya

18. Mandukya

19. Mundaka

20. Narada-parivrajaka

21. Nrisimha-tapani

22. Parabrahma

23. Paramahamsa-parivrajaka

24. Pashupata

25. Prashna

26. Rama-rahasya

27. Rama-tapani

28. Shandilya

29. Sharabha

30. Sita

31. Surya

32. Tripura-tapani

* Some sources list 'Kaivalya Upanishad' under 'Krishna Yajur Veda'.

Also the information given in the Appendix has been compiled from various sources and has not been verified. Please refer to direct sources for further study.